Head Trauma

Patricia C. Davis

Craniocerebral injuries are a common cause of hospital admission following trauma, and are associated with significant long-term morbidity and mortality. CT remains essential for detecting lesions that require immediate neurosurgical intervention as well as those that require in-hospital observation and medical management.¹ For patients with minor head injury (Glasgow Coma Scale [GSG] score of 13–15), the New Orleans Criteria² and the Canadian CT Head Rule³ are clinical guidelines with high sensitivity for detecting injuries that require neurosurgical intervention and offer a potential reduction in unnecessary CT scans.^4–6

Other imaging modalities such as MR imaging depict nonsurgical pathology not visible on CT. Cervical spine imaging is indicated for patients with head injury who have signs, symptoms, or a mechanism of injury that might result in spinal injury, and in those who are neurologically impaired (see the ACR Appropriateness Criteria for Spine Trauma).

Skull Radiography

Masters et al⁷ developed and tested a management strategy that shifted the focus of neuroimaging of head trauma away from skull radiography and toward CT scanning. Skull radiography is useful for imaging of calvarial fractures, penetrating injuries, and radiopaque foreign bodies.

CT

CT advantages for evaluation of the head-injured patient include its sensitivity for demonstrating mass effect, ventricular size and configuration, bone injuries, and acute hemorrhage. CT offers widespread availability, rapidity of scanning, and compatibility with medical devices. Its limitations include insensitivity in detecting small and nonhemorrhagic lesions such as contusion, particularly adjacent to bony surfaces. Likewise, diffuse axonal injuries (DAIs) that result in small brain lesions go undetected on CT. CT is relatively insensitive for detecting increased intracranial pressure or cerebral edema and for early demonstration of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) that may accompany head injury. Potential risks of exposure to ionizing radiation warrant judicious patient selection for CT scanning as well as radiation dose management.⁸

There is a consensus that patients identified as moderate-risk or high-risk for intracranial injury should undergo early noncontrast CT for evidence of intracerebral hematoma, midline shift, or increased intracranial pressure. There is an inverse relationship between declining clinical or neurologic status as described by the GCS⁹ and the incidence and severity of CT abnormalities related to head injury.^10–12

Clinical selection criteria for CT scanning of patients with minor or mild injury (ie, GCS score >12) who harbor significant intracranial pathology and/or require acute surgical intervention have been problematic. Rapid CT scanning is readily available in most hospitals that treat head injured patients; thus CT has value as a screening tool to triage minor or mild head-injured patients who require hospital admission or surgery from those who can be safely discharged without hospital admission.^13–15 Although this approach offers reduced inpatient services and reduced cost, the result is greater CT use in the emergency setting.^11,13–15 In the minor head injury setting with a GCS score of 15, the New Orleans Criteria² found 100% sensitivity for CT identification of an acute trauma lesion by using risk factors of headache, vomiting, drug or alcohol intoxication, older than age 60, short-term memory deficit, physical findings of supraclavicular trauma, and/or seizure. Stiell et al³ reported 100% sensitivity for detecting neurosurgical and/or clinically important brain injury in subjects with a GCS score of 13–15 based on high-risk factors of failure to reach a GCS score of 15 within 2 hours, suspected open skull fracture, 2 or more vomiting episodes, sign of basal skull fracture, or age ≥65.

Clinical criteria for scanning of children with head injury have been less reliable than those for adults, particularly for children younger than age 2.^16,17 For this reason, more liberal use of CT scanning has been suggested for pediatric patients. This must be balanced with the higher risk of radiation exposure in childhood via judicious patient selection for scanning as well as management of radiation dose.^8,18,19 Noncontrast head CT plays an essential role in the evaluation of children with suspected physical injury from child abuse (see the ACR Appropriateness Criteria for Suspected Physical Abuse—Child).

Early and repeated CT scanning may be required for deterioration, especially in the first 72 hours after head injury, to detect delayed hematoma, hypoxic-ischemic lesions, or cerebral edema.²⁰ CT has a role in subacute or chronic head injury for depicting atrophy, focal encephalomalacia, hydrocephalus, and chronic subdural hematoma.

Cerebral Angiography, CTA, MRA

Cerebral angiography has a role in diagnosis and management of traumatic vascular injuries such as pseudoaneurysm, dissection, or uncontrolled hemorrhage. Vascular injuries typically occur with penetrating trauma, basal skull fracture, or trauma to the neck.^21–23

CT angiography (CTA) and MR angiography (MRA) have a role as less invasive screening tools for detection of traumatic vascular lesions. MRA and fat-suppressed T1-weighted MR²² or CTA may reveal carotid or vertebral dissection, although angiography remains the gold standard for dissection depiction.

MR Imaging

MR imaging is hindered by its limited availability in the acute trauma setting, long imaging times, sensitivity to patient motion, incompatibility with various medical devices, and relative insensitivity to subarachnoid hemorrhage. Other factors include the need for MR imaging-specific monitoring equipment and ventilators, and the risk of scanning patients with certain indwelling devices (eg, cardiac pacemaker, cerebral aneurysm clip) or foreign bodies. In part, these limitations can be overcome by situating MR imaging scanners close to emergency care areas with appropriate design and equipment for managing acutely injured patients.^24,25 Open bore geometry, faster imaging sequences, and improved patient monitoring equipment allow a greater role for MR imaging in closed head injuries.

MR imaging is sensitive for detecting and characterizing subacute and chronic brain injuries. MR abnormalities in subacute head injury have been used to predict the recovery outcome of posttraumatic vegetative state.²⁶ While CT is sensitive for detecting of injuries requiring a change in treatment,²⁷ MR imaging also is used for acute head-injured patients with nonsurgical, medically stable pathology. Hemosiderin-sensitive T2-weighted gradient echo sequences reveal small subacute or chronic hemorrhages. Diffusion sequences improve detection of acute infarction associated with head injury. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images are more sensitive than conventional MR imaging sequences for depicting of subarachnoid hemorrhage and for lesions bordered by CSF.²⁸

The soft tissue detail offered by MR imaging is superior to that of CT for depicting nonhemorrhagic primary lesions such as contusions, for secondary effects of trauma such as edema and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and for imaging of DAI.^29–31 DAI results in characteristic lesions in increasing order of injury severity in the: 1) cerebral white matter and gray-white matter junction, 2) corpus callosum, particularly the splenium, and 3) dorsal upper brain stem and cerebellum.^29,32

Superior depiction of nonsurgical lesions with MR imaging may affect medical management and predict the degree of neurologic recovery.^29,33 Diffusion-weighted MR imaging and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) mapping depict cytotoxic injury almost immediately. In acute brain trauma, focal contusion and DAI may show restricted diffusion and evolve over time to atrophy / encephalomalacia.^34,35 Perfusion imaging with CT or MR imaging may prove helpful for disorders of vascular autoregulation or ischemia.³⁶

Other Imaging Modalities

A few reports suggest a role for functional imaging techniques (SPECT, PET, xenon-enhanced CT, functional MR imaging) to assess cognitive and neuropsychologic disturbances as well as recovery following head trauma.^37–40

Review Information

This guideline was originally developed in 1996. The last review and update was completed in 2006.

Appendix

Expert Panel on Neurologic Imaging: Patricia C. Davis, MD, Principal Author, Northwest Radiology Consultants, Atlanta, Ga; David J. Seidenwurm, MD, Panel Chair; James A. Brunberg, MD; Robert Louis De La Paz, MD; Pr. Didier Dormont; David B. Hackney, MD; John E. Jordan, MD; John P. Karis, MD; Suresh Kumar Mukherji, MD; Patrick A Turski, MD; Franz J. Wippold II, MD; Robert D Zimmerman, MD; Michael W. McDermott, MD, American Association of Neurologic Surgeons; Michael A. Sloan, MD, MS, American Academy of Neurology.

Footnotes

This article is a summary of the complete version of this topic, which is available on the ACR Website at www.acr.org/ac. Practitioners are encouraged to refer to the complete version.
Reprinted with permission of the American College of Radiology.

References

↵
Saul TG, and Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care of the American Association of Neurological Surgeons and Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Management of Head Injury April 1998
↵
Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med 2000;343:100–05
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT Head Rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet 2001;357:1391–96
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Haydel MJ. Clinical decision instruments for CT scanning in minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1551–53
CrossRef PubMed
Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. External validation of the Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria for CT scanning in patients with minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1519–25
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Stiell IG, Clement CM, Rowe BH, et al. Comparison of the Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria in patients with minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1511–18
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Masters SJ, McClean PM, Arcarese JS, et al. Skull x-ray examinations after head trauma. Recommendations by a multidisciplinary panel and validation study. N Engl J Med 1987;316:84–91
PubMed
↵
National Cancer Institute USNIoH. Radiation risks and pediatric computed tomography (CT): a guide for health care providers.;2002
↵
Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2:81–84
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Kido DK, Cox C, Hamill RW, et al. Traumatic brain injuries: predictive usefulness of CT. Radiology 1992;182:777–81
PubMed
↵
Reinus WR, Zwemer FL, Jr., Fornoff JR. Prospective optimization of patient selection for emergency cranial computed tomography: univariate and multivariate analyses. Invest Radiol 1996;31:101–08
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Shackford SR, Wald SL, Ross SE, et al. The clinical utility of computed tomographic scanning and neurologic examination in the management of patients with minor head injuries. J Trauma 1992;33:385–94
PubMed
↵
Livingston DH, Loder PA, Hunt CD. Minimal head injury: is admission necessary? Am Surg 1991;57:14–17
PubMed
Nagy KK, Joseph KT, Krosner SM, et al. The utility of head computed tomography after minimal head injury. J Trauma 1999;46:268–70
PubMed
↵
Stein SC, O'Malley KF, Ross SE. Is routine computed tomography scanning too expensive for mild head injury? Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:1286–89
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Dietrich AM, Bowman MJ, Ginn-Pease ME, et al. Pediatric head injuries: can clinical factors reliably predict an abnormality on computed tomography? Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1535–40
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Homer CJ, Kleinman L. Technical report: minor head injury in children. Pediatrics 1999;104:e78
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
The ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) concept in pediatric CT intelligent dose reduction. Multidisciplinary conference organized by the Society of Pediatric Radiology. August 18–19, 2001. Pediatr Radiol 2002;32:217–313
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF. Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? AJR 2001;176:297–301
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Stein SC, Spettell C, Young G, et al. Delayed and progressive brain injury in closed-head trauma: radiological demonstration. Neurosurgery 1993;32:25–30; discussion 30–31
PubMed
↵
Gaskill-Shipley MF, Tomsick TA. Angiography in the evaluation of head and neck trauma. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 1996;6:607–24
PubMed
↵
Ozdoba C, Sturzenegger M, Schroth G. Internal carotid artery dissection: MR imaging features and clinical-radiologic correlation. Radiology 1996;199:191–98
PubMed
↵
Showalter W, Esekogwu V, Newton KI, et al. Vertebral artery dissection. Acad Emerg Med 1997;4:991–95
PubMed
↵
Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B, et al. Prospective comparative study of intermediate-field MR and CT in the evaluation of closed head trauma. AJR 1988;150:673–82
PubMed
↵
Mittl RL, Grossman RI, Hiehle JF, et al. Prevalence of MR evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994;15:1583–89
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
Kampfl A, Schmutzhard E, Franz G, et al. Prediction of recovery from post-traumatic vegetative state with cerebral magnetic-resonance imaging. Lancet 1998;351:1763–67
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Fiser SM, Johnson SB, Fortune JB. Resource utilization in traumatic brain injury: the role of magnetic resonance imaging. Am Surg 1998;64:1088–93
PubMed
↵
Ashikaga R, Araki Y, Ishida O. MRI of head injury using FLAIR. Neuroradiology 1997;39:239–42
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Gentry LR. Imaging of closed head injury. Radiology 1994;191:1–17
PubMed
Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B. MR imaging of head trauma: review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR 1988;150:663–72
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Gentry LR, Thompson B, Godersky JC. Trauma to the corpus callosum: MR features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1988;9:1129–38
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
Arfanakis K, Haughton VM, Carew JD, et al. Diffusion tensor MR imaging in diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2002;23:794–802
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
Doezema D, King JN, Tandberg D, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in minor head injury. Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:1281–85
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Rugg-Gunn FJ, Symms MR, Barker GJ, et al. Diffusion imaging shows abnormalities after blunt head trauma when conventional magnetic resonance imaging is normal. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;70:530–33
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
Smith DH, Meaney DF, Lenkinski RE, et al. New magnetic resonance imaging techniques for the evaluation of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 1995;12:573–77
PubMed
↵
Wintermark M, Chiolero R, van Melle G, et al. Relationship between brain perfusion computed tomography variables and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe head trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1579–87
CrossRef PubMed
↵
Ichise M, Chung DG, Wang P, et al. Technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT, CT and MRI in the evaluation of patients with chronic traumatic brain injury: a correlation with neuropsychological performance. J Nucl Med 1994;35:217–26
Abstract/FREE Full Text
Jacobs A, Put E, Ingels M, et al. Prospective evaluation of technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT in mild and moderate traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med 1994;35:942–47
Abstract/FREE Full Text
Jantzen KJ, Anderson B, Steinberg FL, et al. A prospective functional MR imaging study of mild traumatic brain injury in college football players. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:738–45
Abstract/FREE Full Text
↵
Kinuya K, Kakuda K, Nobata K, et al. Role of brain perfusion single-photon emission tomography in traumatic head injury. Nucl Med Commun 2004;25:333–37
CrossRef PubMed

View this table:

Clinical condition—head trauma

In this issue

Download PDF

Email Article

Citation Tools

Cited By...

More in this TOC Section

Show more ACR APPROPRIATENESS CRITERIA

[1] ↵
Saul TG, and Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care of the American Association of Neurological Surgeons and Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Management of Head Injury April 1998

[2] ↵
Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med 2000;343:100–05
CrossRef PubMed

[3] ↵
Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT Head Rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet 2001;357:1391–96
CrossRef PubMed

[4] ↵
Haydel MJ. Clinical decision instruments for CT scanning in minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1551–53
CrossRef PubMed

[5] Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. External validation of the Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria for CT scanning in patients with minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1519–25
CrossRef PubMed

[6] ↵
Stiell IG, Clement CM, Rowe BH, et al. Comparison of the Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria in patients with minor head injury. JAMA 2005;294:1511–18
CrossRef PubMed

[7] ↵
Masters SJ, McClean PM, Arcarese JS, et al. Skull x-ray examinations after head trauma. Recommendations by a multidisciplinary panel and validation study. N Engl J Med 1987;316:84–91
PubMed

[8] ↵
National Cancer Institute USNIoH. Radiation risks and pediatric computed tomography (CT): a guide for health care providers.;2002

[9] ↵
Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2:81–84
CrossRef PubMed

[10] ↵
Kido DK, Cox C, Hamill RW, et al. Traumatic brain injuries: predictive usefulness of CT. Radiology 1992;182:777–81
PubMed

[11] ↵
Reinus WR, Zwemer FL, Jr., Fornoff JR. Prospective optimization of patient selection for emergency cranial computed tomography: univariate and multivariate analyses. Invest Radiol 1996;31:101–08
CrossRef PubMed

[12] ↵
Shackford SR, Wald SL, Ross SE, et al. The clinical utility of computed tomographic scanning and neurologic examination in the management of patients with minor head injuries. J Trauma 1992;33:385–94
PubMed

[13] ↵
Livingston DH, Loder PA, Hunt CD. Minimal head injury: is admission necessary? Am Surg 1991;57:14–17
PubMed

[14] Nagy KK, Joseph KT, Krosner SM, et al. The utility of head computed tomography after minimal head injury. J Trauma 1999;46:268–70
PubMed

[15] ↵
Stein SC, O'Malley KF, Ross SE. Is routine computed tomography scanning too expensive for mild head injury? Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:1286–89
CrossRef PubMed

[16] ↵
Dietrich AM, Bowman MJ, Ginn-Pease ME, et al. Pediatric head injuries: can clinical factors reliably predict an abnormality on computed tomography? Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1535–40
CrossRef PubMed

[17] ↵
Homer CJ, Kleinman L. Technical report: minor head injury in children. Pediatrics 1999;104:e78
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[18] ↵
The ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) concept in pediatric CT intelligent dose reduction. Multidisciplinary conference organized by the Society of Pediatric Radiology. August 18–19, 2001. Pediatr Radiol 2002;32:217–313
CrossRef PubMed

[19] ↵
Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF. Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? AJR 2001;176:297–301
CrossRef PubMed

[20] ↵
Stein SC, Spettell C, Young G, et al. Delayed and progressive brain injury in closed-head trauma: radiological demonstration. Neurosurgery 1993;32:25–30; discussion 30–31
PubMed

[21] ↵
Gaskill-Shipley MF, Tomsick TA. Angiography in the evaluation of head and neck trauma. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 1996;6:607–24
PubMed

[22] ↵
Ozdoba C, Sturzenegger M, Schroth G. Internal carotid artery dissection: MR imaging features and clinical-radiologic correlation. Radiology 1996;199:191–98
PubMed

[23] ↵
Showalter W, Esekogwu V, Newton KI, et al. Vertebral artery dissection. Acad Emerg Med 1997;4:991–95
PubMed

[24] ↵
Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B, et al. Prospective comparative study of intermediate-field MR and CT in the evaluation of closed head trauma. AJR 1988;150:673–82
PubMed

[25] ↵
Mittl RL, Grossman RI, Hiehle JF, et al. Prevalence of MR evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994;15:1583–89
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[26] ↵
Kampfl A, Schmutzhard E, Franz G, et al. Prediction of recovery from post-traumatic vegetative state with cerebral magnetic-resonance imaging. Lancet 1998;351:1763–67
CrossRef PubMed

[27] ↵
Fiser SM, Johnson SB, Fortune JB. Resource utilization in traumatic brain injury: the role of magnetic resonance imaging. Am Surg 1998;64:1088–93
PubMed

[28] ↵
Ashikaga R, Araki Y, Ishida O. MRI of head injury using FLAIR. Neuroradiology 1997;39:239–42
CrossRef PubMed

[29] ↵
Gentry LR. Imaging of closed head injury. Radiology 1994;191:1–17
PubMed

[30] Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B. MR imaging of head trauma: review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR 1988;150:663–72
CrossRef PubMed

[31] ↵
Gentry LR, Thompson B, Godersky JC. Trauma to the corpus callosum: MR features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1988;9:1129–38
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[32] ↵
Arfanakis K, Haughton VM, Carew JD, et al. Diffusion tensor MR imaging in diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2002;23:794–802
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[33] ↵
Doezema D, King JN, Tandberg D, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in minor head injury. Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:1281–85
CrossRef PubMed

[34] ↵
Rugg-Gunn FJ, Symms MR, Barker GJ, et al. Diffusion imaging shows abnormalities after blunt head trauma when conventional magnetic resonance imaging is normal. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;70:530–33
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[35] ↵
Smith DH, Meaney DF, Lenkinski RE, et al. New magnetic resonance imaging techniques for the evaluation of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 1995;12:573–77
PubMed

[36] ↵
Wintermark M, Chiolero R, van Melle G, et al. Relationship between brain perfusion computed tomography variables and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe head trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1579–87
CrossRef PubMed

[37] ↵
Ichise M, Chung DG, Wang P, et al. Technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT, CT and MRI in the evaluation of patients with chronic traumatic brain injury: a correlation with neuropsychological performance. J Nucl Med 1994;35:217–26
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[38] Jacobs A, Put E, Ingels M, et al. Prospective evaluation of technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT in mild and moderate traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med 1994;35:942–47
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[39] Jantzen KJ, Anderson B, Steinberg FL, et al. A prospective functional MR imaging study of mild traumatic brain injury in college football players. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:738–45
Abstract/FREE Full Text

[40] ↵
Kinuya K, Kakuda K, Nobata K, et al. Role of brain perfusion single-photon emission tomography in traumatic head injury. Nucl Med Commun 2004;25:333–37
CrossRef PubMed

Main menu

User menu

Search

American Journal of Neuroradiology

Head Trauma

Skull Radiography

CT

Cerebral Angiography, CTA, MRA

MR Imaging

Other Imaging Modalities

Review Information

Appendix

Footnotes

References

In this issue

Citation Manager Formats

Related Articles

Cited By...

More in this TOC Section

Similar Articles

News and Updates

Resources

Opportunities

American Society of Neuroradiology

Main menu

User menu

Search

Head Trauma

Skull Radiography

CT

Cerebral Angiography, CTA, MRA

MR Imaging

Other Imaging Modalities

Review Information

Appendix

Footnotes

References

In this issue

Citation Manager Formats

Jump to section

Related Articles

Cited By...

More in this TOC Section

Similar Articles

News and Updates

Resources

Opportunities

American Society of Neuroradiology